Critical analysis papers are a cornerstone of academic assessment, challenging students to move beyond simple summaries and engage with texts on a deeper level. This guide provides a comprehensive overview of how to craft a compelling critical analysis paper, suitable for students across various disciplines.
Introduction
Scientific research often begins with asking questions grounded in evidence, which are then formalized as hypotheses.1,2 These hypotheses serve as navigational tools, offering paths towards solutions, explanations, and anticipated outcomes.3,4 Both the asking of research questions and the forming of hypotheses are built upon established theories and real-world observations, making possible the launch of groundbreaking investigations and the ethical testing of ideas.5,6
A strong understanding of both quantitative and qualitative research methodologies is essential,2 as both depend on well-articulated research questions and hypotheses.7 Nevertheless, these vital elements are sometimes neglected or not crafted with the necessary care and attention. Thorough planning and careful deliberation are required when formulating research in either quantitative or qualitative approaches, especially in conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses.4
There is a constant demand for assistance to researchers in designing innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for scholarly articles that thoroughly examine these components.1 When research questions and hypotheses lack thoughtful consideration, it often results in unethical research and unsatisfactory results. Carefully constructed research questions and hypotheses establish solid objectives, which in turn guide the appropriate research design, methodology, and outcomes. This guide offers an in-depth exploration of the different facets of creating effective research questions and hypotheses, intending to guide researchers as they develop their projects. To highlight key ideas, examples from peer-reviewed academic publications in the healthcare industry and from the authors are included.
Definitions and Relationship of Research Questions and Hypotheses
A research question is what a study endeavors to answer through data analysis and interpretation. The answer is extensively discussed in the paper’s discussion section. Thus, the research question offers a glimpse into the study’s different components and variables, all designed to tackle the issue presented in the research question.1 A well-formulated research question clarifies the writing and improves comprehension of the research topic, goals, scope, and limitations of the investigation.5
On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an informed prediction of an expected result. This prediction relies on prior research and existing knowledge.8,9 The research hypothesis specifically predicts a new phenomenon10 or makes a formal statement about the anticipated link between an independent and a dependent variable.3,11 It offers a tentative response to the research question that requires testing or investigation.4
Hypotheses use reasoning to forecast an outcome based on a theory.10 They can also be derived from theories by concentrating on elements that have not yet been seen.10 The validity of hypotheses often hinges on how well the prediction can be tested in a reproducible experiment.8
Conversely, hypotheses can also be reworded as research questions. It may take multiple hypotheses based on existing knowledge and theories to address a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses leads to a research design with logical connections among variables. These connections provide a strong base for carrying out the study.4,11 Poorly constructed research questions can lead to badly developed hypotheses and incorrect study designs, producing untrustworthy findings. Therefore, when beginning research, it is crucial to formulate relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses.12
Characteristics of Good Research Questions and Hypotheses
Excellent research questions are both focused and specific. They integrate collected observations and data to either confirm or challenge the hypotheses that follow. Well-constructed hypotheses are rooted in previous findings and confirm the research setting. They possess realism, complexity, depth, and reproducibility. Most importantly, these hypotheses are testable and can be addressed.13
Well-developed hypotheses possess several key characteristics. Good hypotheses are:
- Empirically testable7,10,11,[13](#B13].
- Supported by preliminary evidence9.
- Testable through ethical research7,9.
- Based on original ideas9.
- Have logical reasoning grounded in evidence10.
- Predictive11.
Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, pointing to a relationship or effect that is relevant to the research topic.7,11 These are first developed from a broad theory and then divided into particular hypotheses using deductive thinking. Inductive thinking, which relies on specific findings or observations to create more general hypotheses, is used when there is no theory to base the hypotheses on.10
Types of Research Questions and Hypotheses
Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1.
Table 1. Summary of types of quantitative and qualitative research questions and hypotheses.
| Quantitative research questions | Quantitative research hypotheses |
|---|---|
| Descriptive research questions | Simple hypothesis |
| Comparative research questions | Complex hypothesis |
| Relationship research questions | Directional hypothesis |
| Non-directional hypothesis | |
| Associative hypothesis | |
| Causal hypothesis | |
| Null hypothesis | |
| Alternative hypothesis | |
| Working hypothesis | |
| Statistical hypothesis | |
| Logical hypothesis | |
| Hypothesis-testing | |
| Qualitative research questions | Qualitative research hypotheses |
| Contextual research questions | Hypothesis-generating |
| Descriptive research questions | |
| Evaluation research questions | |
| Explanatory research questions | |
| Exploratory research questions | |
| Generative research questions | |
| Ideological research questions | |
| Ethnographic research questions | |
| Phenomenological research questions | |
| Grounded theory questions | |
| Qualitative case study questions |
Research Questions in Quantitative Research
In quantitative research, research questions explore the relationships between the variables under investigation and are usually formulated at the beginning of the study. They are precise and typically associated with the population, independent and dependent variables, and research design being studied.1 Research questions may also aim to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured (descriptive research questions).1,5,14 These questions may also seek to uncover differences between groups regarding an outcome variable (comparative research questions),1,5,14 or to explain trends and interactions among variables (relationship research questions).1,5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2.
Table 2. Definitions and examples of quantitative research questions.
| Quantitative research questions |
|---|
| Descriptive research question |
| – Measures responses of subjects to variables |
| – Presents variables to measure, analyze, or assess |
| What is the proportion of resident doctors in the hospital who have mastered ultrasonography (response of subjects to a variable) as a diagnostic technique in their clinical training? |
| Comparative research question |
| – Clarifies difference between one group with outcome variable and another group without outcome variable |
| Is there a difference in the reduction of lung metastasis in osteosarcoma patients who received the vitamin D adjunctive therapy (group with outcome variable) compared with osteosarcoma patients who did not receive the vitamin D adjunctive therapy (group without outcome variable)? |
| – Compares the effects of variables |
| How does the vitamin D analogue 22-Oxacalcitriol (variable 1) mimic the antiproliferative activity of 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D (variable 2) in osteosarcoma cells? |
| Relationship research question |
| – Defines trends, association, relationships, or interactions between dependent variable and independent variable |
| Is there a relationship between the number of medical student suicide (dependent variable) and the level of medical student stress (independent variable) in Japan during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic? |
Hypotheses in Quantitative Research
In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the anticipated relationships between variables.15 Relationships between variables that can be predicted include:
- Between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable (simple hypothesis).
- Between two or more independent and dependent variables (complex hypothesis).4,[11](#B11]
Hypotheses may also define the expected direction and indicate a commitment to a specific result (directional hypothesis)4. Conversely, hypotheses may not predict a specific direction and are applied when there is a lack of theory or when results contradict previous studies (non-directional hypothesis).4 Additionally, hypotheses can:
- Define interdependency between variables (associative hypothesis).4
- Propose an effect on the dependent variable from the manipulation of the independent variable (causal hypothesis).4
- State a negative relationship between two variables (null hypothesis).4,[11](#B11],15
- Replace the working hypothesis if rejected (alternative hypothesis).15
- Explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory (working hypothesis).11
- Involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically (statistical hypothesis).11
- Express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically (logical hypothesis).11
We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3.
Table 3. Definitions and examples of quantitative research hypotheses.
| Quantitative research hypotheses |
|---|
| Simple hypothesis |
| – Predicts relationship between single dependent variable and single independent variable |
| If the dose of the new medication (single independent variable) is high, blood pressure (single dependent variable) is lowered. |
| Complex hypothesis |
| – Foretells relationship between two or more independent and dependent variables |
| The higher the use of anticancer drugs, radiation therapy, and adjunctive agents (3 independent variables), the higher would be the survival rate (1 dependent variable). |
| Directional hypothesis |
| – Identifies study direction based on theory towards particular outcome to clarify relationship between variables |
| Privately funded research projects will have a larger international scope (study direction) than publicly funded research projects. |
| Non-directional hypothesis |
| – Nature of relationship between two variables or exact study direction is not identified |
| – Does not involve a theory |
| Women and men are different in terms of helpfulness. (Exact study direction is not identified) |
| Associative hypothesis |
| – Describes variable interdependency |
| – Change in one variable causes change in another variable |
| A larger number of people vaccinated against COVID-19 in the region (change in independent variable) will reduce the region’s incidence of COVID-19 infection (change in dependent variable). |
| Causal hypothesis |
| – An effect on dependent variable is predicted from manipulation of independent variable |
| A change into a high-fiber diet (independent variable) will reduce the blood sugar level (dependent variable) of the patient. |
| Null hypothesis |
| – A negative statement indicating no relationship or difference between 2 variables |
| There is no significant difference in the severity of pulmonary metastases between the new drug (variable 1) and the current drug (variable 2). |
| Alternative hypothesis |
| – Following a null hypothesis, an alternative hypothesis predicts a relationship between 2 study variables |
| The new drug (variable 1) is better on average in reducing the level of pain from pulmonary metastasis than the current drug (variable 2). |
| Working hypothesis |
| – A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory |
| Dairy cows fed with concentrates of different formulations will produce different amounts of milk. |
| Statistical hypothesis |
| – Assumption about the value of population parameter or relationship among several population characteristics |
| – Validity tested by a statistical experiment or analysis |
| The mean recovery rate from COVID-19 infection (value of population parameter) is not significantly different between population 1 and population 2. |
| There is a positive correlation between the level of stress at the workplace and the number of suicides (population characteristics) among working people in Japan. |
| Logical hypothesis |
| – Offers or proposes an explanation with limited or no extensive evidence |
| If healthcare workers provide more educational programs about contraception methods, the number of adolescent pregnancies will be less. |
| Hypothesis-testing (Quantitative hypothesis-testing research) |
| – Quantitative research uses deductive reasoning. |
| – This involves the formation of a hypothesis, collection of data in the investigation of the problem, analysis and use of the data from the investigation, and drawing of conclusions to validate or nullify the hypotheses. |
Research Questions in Qualitative Research
Unlike research questions in quantitative research, those in qualitative research are often continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and accompanying sub-questions receive greater emphasis than hypotheses.15 The central question broadly examines a complex set of variables surrounding the central phenomenon, intending to present the various viewpoints of participants.15
Qualitative research questions are developed with different objectives in mind. These questions can function in several ways, such as to:
- Identify and describe existing conditions (contextual research questions).
- Describe a phenomenon (descriptive research questions).
- Assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures (evaluation research questions).
- Examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena (explanatory research questions).
- Focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic (exploratory research questions).5
Additionally, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions (generative research questions) or advance specific ideologies of a position (ideological research questions).1 Other qualitative research questions may build on existing literature and become working guidelines (ethnographic research questions). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to existing literature or a typology of questions (phenomenological research questions), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process (grounded theory questions), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes (qualitative case study questions).15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4, and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5.
Table 4. Definitions and examples of qualitative research questions.
| Qualitative research questions |
|---|
| Contextual research question |
| – Ask the nature of what already exists |
| – Individuals or groups function to further clarify and understand the natural context of real-world problems |
| What are the experiences of nurses working night shifts in healthcare during the COVID-19 pandemic? (natural context of real-world problems) |
| Descriptive research question |
| – Aims to describe a phenomenon |
| What are the different forms of disrespect and abuse (phenomenon) experienced by Tanzanian women when giving birth in healthcare facilities? |
| Evaluation research question |
| – Examines the effectiveness of existing practice or accepted frameworks |
| How effective are decision aids (effectiveness of existing practice) in helping decide whether to give birth at home or in a healthcare facility? |
| Explanatory research question |
| – Clarifies a previously studied phenomenon and explains why it occurs |
| Why is there an increase in teenage pregnancy (phenomenon) in Tanzania? |
| Exploratory research question |
| – Explores areas that have not been fully investigated to have a deeper understanding of the research problem |
| What factors affect the mental health of medical students (areas that have not yet been fully investigated) during the COVID-19 pandemic? |
| Generative research question |
| – Develops an in-depth understanding of people’s behavior by asking ‘how would’ or ‘what if’ to identify problems and find solutions |
| How would the extensive research experience of the behavior of new staff impact the success of the novel drug initiative? |
| Ideological research question |
| – Aims to advance specific ideas or ideologies of a position |
| Are Japanese nurses who volunteer in remote African hospitals able to promote humanized care of patients (specific ideas or ideologies) in the areas of safe patient environment, respect of patient privacy, and provision of accurate information related to health and care? |
| Ethnographic research question |
| – Clarifies peoples’ nature, activities, their interactions, and the outcomes of their actions in specific settings |
| What are the demographic characteristics, rehabilitative treatments, community interactions, and disease outcomes (nature, activities, their interactions, and the outcomes) of people in China who are suffering from pneumoconiosis? |
| Phenomenological research question |
| – Knows more about the phenomena that have impacted an individual |
| What are the lived experiences of parents who have been living with and caring for children with a diagnosis of autism? (phenomena that have impacted an individual) |
| Grounded theory question |
| – Focuses on social processes asking about what happens and how people interact, or uncovering social relationships and behaviors of groups |
| What are the problems that pregnant adolescents face in terms of social and cultural norms (social processes), and how can these be addressed? |
| Qualitative case study question |
| – Assesses a phenomenon using different sources of data to answer “why” and “how” questions |
| – Considers how the phenomenon is influenced by its contextual situation. |
| How does quitting work and assuming the role of a full-time mother (phenomenon assessed) change the lives of women in Japan? |
Table 5. Definitions of research hypothesis under qualitative research.
| Qualitative research hypotheses |
|---|
| Hypothesis-generating (Qualitative hypothesis-generating research) |
| – Qualitative research uses inductive reasoning. |
| – This involves data collection from study participants or the literature regarding a phenomenon of interest, using the collected data to develop a formal hypothesis, and using the formal hypothesis as a framework for testing the hypothesis. |
| – Qualitative exploratory studies explore areas deeper, clarifying subjective experience and allowing formulation of a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach. |
Qualitative studies typically ask one central research question and several sub-questions that begin with How or What. These research questions employ exploratory verbs like explore or describe. They also focus on a single phenomenon of interest and may include mentions of the research site and participants.15
Hypotheses in Qualitative Research
Hypotheses in qualitative research are presented as a clear statement about the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research, where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can produce both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes.2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, it implies an integrative approach between the two research methods, where a single mixed-methods research question can be created.1
Frameworks for Developing Research Questions and Hypotheses
Research questions, followed by hypotheses, should be developed before the study starts.1,12,14 It is essential to develop feasible research questions about a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved through a meticulous review of past and current studies to identify a novel topic. Then, focus on specific areas to create ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is assessed based on the clarity of the data produced, the specificity of the methodology, the objectivity of the outcome, the depth of the research, and the impact of the study.1,5 These aspects form the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant).1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions.14
The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also utilized when developing research questions.1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks:
- PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study.
- PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest.1
Research questions are also deemed good if they meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic.14
As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research questions and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research (Table 6)16 and qualitative research (Table 7)17, and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.
Table 6. Examples of ambiguous research question and hypothesis that result in unclear and weak research objective in quantitative research, how to transform them into clear and good statements, and points to avoid.
| Variables | Unclear and weak statement (Statement 1)a | Clear and good statement (Statement 2)b | Points to avoid |
|---|---|---|---|
| Research question | Which is more effective between smoke moxibustion and smokeless moxibustion? | “Moreover, regarding smoke moxibustion versus smokeless moxibustion, it remains unclear which is more effective, safe, and acceptable to pregnant women, and whether there is any difference in the amount of heat generated.”16 | 1) Vague and unfocused questions |
| 2) Closed questions simply answerable by yes or no | |||
| 3) Questions requiring a simple choice | |||
| Hypothesis | The smoke moxibustion group will have higher cephalic presentation. | “Hypothesis 1. The smoke moxibustion stick group (SM group) and smokeless moxibustion stick group (-SLM group) will have higher rates of cephalic presentation after treatment than the control group. | 1) Unverifiable hypotheses |
| Hypothesis 2. The SM group and SLM group will have higher rates of cephalic presentation at birth than the control group. | 2) Incompletely stated groups of comparison | ||
| Hypothesis 3. There will be no significant differences in the well-being of the mother and child among the three groups in terms of the following outcomes: premature birth, premature rupture of membranes (PROM) at < 37 weeks, Apgar score < 7 at 5 min, umbilical cord blood pH < 7.1, admission to neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), and intrauterine fetal death.”16 | 3) Insufficiently described variables or outcomes | ||
| Research objective | To determine which is more effective between smoke moxibustion and smokeless moxibustion. | “The specific aims of this pilot study were (a) to compare the effects of smoke moxibustion and smokeless moxibustion treatments with the control group as a possible supplement to ECV for converting breech presentation to cephalic presentation and increasing adherence to the newly obtained cephalic position, and (b) to assess the effects of these treatments on the well-being of the mother and child.”16 | 1) Poor understanding of the research question and hypotheses |
| 2) Insufficient description of population, variables, or study outcomes |
aThese statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.
bThese statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi.16
Table 7. Examples of ambiguous research question and hypothesis that result in unclear and weak research objective in qualitative research, how to transform them into clear and good statements, and points to avoid.
| Variables | Unclear and weak statement (Statement 1) | Clear and good statement (Statement 2) | Points to avoid |
|---|---|---|---|
| Research question | Does disrespect and abuse (D&A) occur in childbirth in Tanzania? | How does disrespect and abuse (D&A) occur and what are the types of physical and psychological abuses observed in midwives’ actual care during facility-based childbirth in urban Tanzania? | 1) Ambiguous or oversimplistic questions |
| 2) Questions unverifiable by data collection and analysis | |||
| Hypothesis | Disrespect and abuse (D&A) occur in childbirth in Tanzania. | Hypothesis 1: Several types of physical and psychological abuse by midwives in actual care occur during facility-based childbirth in urban Tanzania. | 1) Statements simply expressing facts |
| Hypothesis 2: Weak nursing and midwifery management contribute to the D&A of women during facility-based childbirth in urban Tanzania. | 2) Insufficiently described concepts or variables | ||
| Research objective | To describe disrespect and abuse (D&A) in childbirth in Tanzania. | “This study aimed to describe from actual observations the respectful and disrespectful care received by women from midwives during their labor period in two hospitals in urban Tanzania.”17a | 1) Statements unrelated to the research question and hypotheses |
| 2) Unattainable or unexplorable objectives |
aThis statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al.17
The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.
Constructing Research Questions and Hypotheses
To create effective research questions and hypotheses, it’s crucial to:
- Clarify the background.
- Identify the research problem at the start of the research within a specific timeframe.9
Then:
- Review or conduct preliminary research to gather available knowledge about potential research questions by studying theories and previous research.18
- Construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions[4](#B4] and develop operational definitions of constructs based on the research questions and problem.
Thereafter:
- Construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses.4
- State the study aims.
This flow for creating effective research questions and hypotheses before conducting research is shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. General flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research.
Qualitative research uses research questions more often than objectives or hypotheses.3 These questions aim to explore, discover, understand, or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to gather descriptive information instead of relating variables or comparing groups. These questions are consistently reviewed, changed, and reformulated during the qualitative study.3 In quantitative research, research questions are also utilized more often in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments to compare variables and their relationships.
Hypotheses are created based on identified variables and presented as an “if-then” statement, following the structure “If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.” At this stage, some expectations from the research should be outlined.18 Then, define the variables that will be manipulated (independent) and those that will be influenced (dependent).4 After this, state and refine the hypothesis, and then identify, gather, and analyze reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis.4 Hypotheses should be specific and testable,[18](#B18] and they should outline the variables, their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research results.18 Constructing hypotheses involves a testable proposition that is deduced from theory, along with independent and dependent variables that are to be separated and measured separately.3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions developed at the study’s start or trial.12
In summary, research questions are developed after establishing the background of the study. Then, hypotheses are created based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses, which will then determine the objectives and design of the research and, ultimately, the outcome.12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.
Fig. 2. Algorithm for building research question and hypothesis in quantitative research, and illustrative example based on the study of Higashihara and Horiuchi.16 .
Fig. 3. Algorithm for building research question and hypothesis in qualitative research, and illustrative example based on the study of Shimoda et al.17 .
Examples of Research Questions from Published Articles
-
EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
- Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
- “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
- RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes?”19
-
EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
- Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
- “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
- Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control?”20
-
EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
- Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
- “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
- RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
- STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH).”21
-
EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
- Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
- “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.”22
-
EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
- Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
- “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies?”23
Examples of Hypotheses in Published Articles
-
EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
- A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
- “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness.”24
- “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response. The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses.”24
-
EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
- Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
