A Complete Guide to Programming in C++ PDF Download

Are you looking for a comprehensive guide to learn C++ programming? Look no further! This article provides a complete overview of C++, guiding you from the basics to advanced concepts. At CONDUCT.EDU.VN, we are committed to offering clear and accessible resources to help you master this powerful language. Whether you’re a beginner or an experienced programmer, this guide will help you understand the essentials of C++ and provide resources for further exploration, including where to find a comprehensive C++ programming PDF for download. Dive in and discover the ins and outs of C++ and enhance your coding skills.

1. Understanding the Foundations of C++

Before diving into the specifics of C++, it’s crucial to grasp its fundamental concepts. C++ is a versatile, high-performance programming language that supports both procedural and object-oriented programming paradigms. Let’s explore its origins, key characteristics, and why it remains a popular choice among developers worldwide.

1.1. The History and Evolution of C++

C++ was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup at Bell Labs in the late 1970s. Originally named “C with Classes,” it was designed as an extension of the C language to include object-oriented features.

Key Milestones in C++ History:

• 1979: Bjarne Stroustrup begins work on “C with Classes.”
• 1983: The language is renamed C++.
• 1998: The first ISO standard for C++ is published (C++98).
• 2003: A minor revision of the standard is released (C++03).
• 2011: A significant update to the standard is introduced (C++11), adding many new features and improvements.
• 2014: Another update is released (C++14), building on C++11.
• 2017: The C++17 standard is published, further enhancing the language.
• 2020: The latest standard, C++20, is released, introducing features like concepts, ranges, and modules.

1.2. Key Characteristics of C++

C++ stands out due to its unique blend of features that make it suitable for a wide range of applications.

Key Features Include:

• Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): Supports classes, inheritance, polymorphism, and encapsulation.
• High Performance: Allows for low-level memory manipulation and efficient execution.
• Versatility: Suitable for system programming, game development, embedded systems, and high-performance computing.
• Standard Template Library (STL): Provides a rich set of data structures and algorithms.
• Compatibility: Largely compatible with C, allowing for the reuse of existing C code.
• Multi-Paradigm: Supports procedural, object-oriented, and generic programming styles.

1.3. Why Learn C++?

Learning C++ offers numerous advantages for aspiring and experienced programmers alike.

Benefits of Learning C++:

• Career Opportunities: High demand for C++ developers in various industries.
• Performance-Critical Applications: Ideal for applications where speed and efficiency are paramount.
• Deep Understanding of Programming: Provides insights into memory management and system-level operations.
• Foundation for Other Languages: Knowledge of C++ makes learning other languages like Java and C# easier.
• Open Source Projects: Many open-source projects are written in C++, contributing to your learning and portfolio.
• Game Development: A primary language for developing high-performance games and game engines.

2. Setting Up Your C++ Development Environment

Before you can start writing C++ code, you need to set up your development environment. This involves installing a compiler, a text editor or IDE, and configuring them to work together seamlessly.

2.1. Choosing a C++ Compiler

A C++ compiler translates your source code into machine-executable code. Here are some popular options:

Popular C++ Compilers:

• GNU Compiler Collection (GCC): A free and open-source compiler available for various platforms.
• Clang: Another open-source compiler known for its fast compilation times and helpful error messages.
• Microsoft Visual C++ (MSVC): Part of the Visual Studio IDE, optimized for Windows development.
• Intel C++ Compiler: Designed for Intel processors, offering advanced optimization features.

2.2. Selecting a Text Editor or Integrated Development Environment (IDE)

A text editor is a basic tool for writing code, while an IDE provides a more comprehensive set of features to streamline development.

Recommended Text Editors and IDEs:

• Visual Studio Code (VS Code): A lightweight and extensible text editor with excellent C++ support through extensions.
• Visual Studio: A full-featured IDE from Microsoft, offering advanced debugging, profiling, and project management tools.
• CLion: A cross-platform IDE from JetBrains, specifically designed for C++ development.
• Eclipse: A versatile open-source IDE with C++ support through the CDT (C/C++ Development Tooling) plugin.
• Sublime Text: A sophisticated text editor with a clean interface and powerful features.

2.3. Configuring Your Environment

Once you’ve chosen a compiler and IDE, you need to configure them to work together. This typically involves setting up the compiler path in your IDE and creating a basic project to test the setup.

Steps to Configure Your Environment:

1. Install a Compiler: Download and install your preferred C++ compiler (e.g., GCC or MSVC).
2. Install an IDE or Text Editor: Choose and install an IDE (e.g., Visual Studio or CLion) or a text editor (e.g., VS Code or Sublime Text).
3. Set Up Compiler Path: Configure your IDE to recognize the compiler by setting the correct path in the IDE settings.
4. Create a New Project: Create a new C++ project in your IDE and add a simple “Hello, World!” program to test the setup.
5. Build and Run: Build the project and run the executable to ensure everything is configured correctly.

3. C++ Basics: Syntax, Variables, and Data Types

With your development environment set up, it’s time to delve into the basics of C++. Understanding the syntax, variables, and data types is fundamental to writing effective code.

3.1. Basic Syntax and Structure

C++ syntax is similar to C but includes additional features for object-oriented programming.

Key Syntax Elements:

• Statements: Instructions that perform an action, ending with a semicolon (;).
• Blocks: Groups of statements enclosed in curly braces ({ }).
• Functions: Reusable blocks of code that perform specific tasks.
• Comments: Explanatory notes in the code, ignored by the compiler (// for single-line, /* ... */ for multi-line).
• Header Files: Files containing declarations of functions and classes (#include).

Basic Program Structure:

#include <iostream>

int main() {
    std::cout << "Hello, World!" << std::endl;
    return 0;
}

3.2. Variables and Data Types

Variables are used to store data, and data types define the type of data a variable can hold.

Common Data Types:

• int: Integer numbers (e.g., -10, 0, 42).
• float: Floating-point numbers (e.g., 3.14, -2.5).
• double: Double-precision floating-point numbers (e.g., 3.14159265359).
• char: Single characters (e.g., ‘A’, ‘b’, ‘5’).
• bool: Boolean values (true or false).
• string: Sequence of characters (e.g., “Hello”, “C++”).

Declaring Variables:

int age = 30;
float price = 99.99;
string name = "John Doe";

3.3. Operators and Expressions

Operators are symbols that perform operations on variables and values. Expressions are combinations of variables, values, and operators that result in a value.

Common Operators:

• Arithmetic Operators: + (addition), - (subtraction), * (multiplication), / (division), % (modulus).
• Assignment Operator: = (assign a value to a variable).
• Comparison Operators: == (equal), != (not equal), > (greater than), < (less than), >= (greater than or equal), <= (less than or equal).
• Logical Operators: && (and), || (or), ! (not).

Example Expressions:

int x = 10;
int y = 5;
int sum = x + y; // sum is 15
bool isEqual = (x == y); // isEqual is false

4. Control Flow: Making Decisions and Loops

Control flow statements allow you to control the order in which your code is executed. This includes making decisions with conditional statements and repeating code blocks with loops.

4.1. Conditional Statements: if, else if, else

Conditional statements allow you to execute different code blocks based on certain conditions.

if Statement:

int age = 20;
if (age >= 18) {
    std::cout << "You are an adult." << std::endl;
}

if-else Statement:

int age = 16;
if (age >= 18) {
    std::cout << "You are an adult." << std::endl;
} else {
    std::cout << "You are a minor." << std::endl;
}

if-else if-else Statement:

int score = 85;
if (score >= 90) {
    std::cout << "Grade: A" << std::endl;
} else if (score >= 80) {
    std::cout << "Grade: B" << std::endl;
} else if (score >= 70) {
    std::cout << "Grade: C" << std::endl;
} else {
    std::cout << "Grade: D" << std::endl;
}

4.2. Loops: for, while, do-while

Loops allow you to repeat a block of code multiple times.

for Loop:

for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
    std::cout << "Iteration: " << i << std::endl;
}

while Loop:

int count = 0;
while (count < 5) {
    std::cout << "Count: " << count << std::endl;
    count++;
}

do-while Loop:

int num = 0;
do {
    std::cout << "Number: " << num << std::endl;
    num++;
} while (num < 5);

4.3. switch Statement

The switch statement provides a way to select one of several code blocks based on the value of a variable.

switch Statement Example:

int day = 3;
switch (day) {
    case 1:
        std::cout << "Monday" << std::endl;
        break;
    case 2:
        std::cout << "Tuesday" << std::endl;
        break;
    case 3:
        std::cout << "Wednesday" << std::endl;
        break;
    default:
        std::cout << "Other day" << std::endl;
}

5. Functions: Modularizing Your Code

Functions are reusable blocks of code that perform specific tasks. They help in organizing code, making it more readable, and promoting code reuse.

5.1. Defining and Calling Functions

A function definition includes the return type, name, parameter list, and function body.

Function Definition:

int add(int a, int b) {
    return a + b;
}

Function Call:

int result = add(5, 3); // result is 8
std::cout << "Result: " << result << std::endl;

5.2. Function Parameters and Return Values

Functions can accept parameters as input and return a value as output.

Parameters:

void greet(string name) {
    std::cout << "Hello, " << name << "!" << std::endl;
}

greet("Alice"); // Output: Hello, Alice!

Return Values:

int multiply(int x, int y) {
    return x * y;
}

int product = multiply(4, 6); // product is 24
std::cout << "Product: " << product << std::endl;

5.3. Function Overloading

Function overloading allows you to define multiple functions with the same name but different parameter lists.

Function Overloading Example:

int add(int a, int b) {
    return a + b;
}

double add(double a, double b) {
    return a + b;
}

int sum1 = add(5, 3); // Calls the first add function
double sum2 = add(5.5, 3.3); // Calls the second add function

6. Object-Oriented Programming in C++

Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm that revolves around objects, which are instances of classes. C++ fully supports OOP principles, including encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism.

6.1. Classes and Objects

A class is a blueprint for creating objects. It defines the properties (data members) and behaviors (member functions) that objects of the class will have.

Class Definition:

class Dog {
public:
    string name;
    int age;

    void bark() {
        std::cout << "Woof!" << std::endl;
    }
};

Creating Objects:

Dog myDog;
myDog.name = "Buddy";
myDog.age = 3;
myDog.bark(); // Output: Woof!

6.2. Encapsulation, Inheritance, and Polymorphism

These are the core principles of OOP.

Encapsulation:

Bundling data and methods that operate on that data within a class, and hiding the internal implementation details from the outside world.

class BankAccount {
private:
    double balance;

public:
    void deposit(double amount) {
        balance += amount;
    }

    double getBalance() {
        return balance;
    }
};

Inheritance:

Creating new classes (derived classes) from existing classes (base classes), inheriting their properties and behaviors.

class Animal {
public:
    void eat() {
        std::cout << "Animal is eating." << std::endl;
    }
};

class Dog : public Animal {
public:
    void bark() {
        std::cout << "Dog is barking." << std::endl;
    }
};

Dog myDog;
myDog.eat(); // Inherited from Animal
myDog.bark(); // Defined in Dog

Polymorphism:

The ability of objects of different classes to respond to the same method call in their own way.

class Shape {
public:
    virtual void draw() {
        std::cout << "Drawing a shape." << std::endl;
    }
};

class Circle : public Shape {
public:
    void draw() override {
        std::cout << "Drawing a circle." << std::endl;
    }
};

Shape* shape1 = new Shape();
Shape* shape2 = new Circle();

shape1->draw(); // Output: Drawing a shape.
shape2->draw(); // Output: Drawing a circle.

6.3. Constructors and Destructors

Constructors are special member functions that initialize objects when they are created. Destructors are special member functions that clean up resources when objects are destroyed.

Constructor:

class Car {
public:
    string model;

    Car(string modelName) {
        model = modelName;
        std::cout << "Car " << model << " is created." << std::endl;
    }
};

Car myCar("Tesla"); // Output: Car Tesla is created.

Destructor:

class Car {
public:
    string model;

    Car(string modelName) {
        model = modelName;
        std::cout << "Car " << model << " is created." << std::endl;
    }

    ~Car() {
        std::cout << "Car " << model << " is destroyed." << std::endl;
    }
};

7. Memory Management in C++

C++ allows for manual memory management, giving you fine-grained control over how memory is allocated and deallocated. Understanding memory management is crucial for writing efficient and reliable C++ code.

7.1. Dynamic Memory Allocation: new and delete

The new operator is used to allocate memory dynamically, and the delete operator is used to deallocate memory.

Allocating Memory with new:

int* ptr = new int; // Allocates memory for an integer
*ptr = 10;
std::cout << "Value: " << *ptr << std::endl; // Output: Value: 10

Deallocating Memory with delete:

delete ptr; // Deallocates the memory
ptr = nullptr; // Set the pointer to null to avoid dangling pointers

Allocating Memory for Arrays:

int* arr = new int[5]; // Allocates memory for an array of 5 integers
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
    arr[i] = i * 2;
}

for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
    std::cout << "arr[" << i << "]: " << arr[i] << std::endl;
}

delete[] arr; // Deallocates the memory for the array
arr = nullptr;

7.2. Smart Pointers: unique_ptr, shared_ptr, weak_ptr

Smart pointers are classes that automatically manage memory, reducing the risk of memory leaks and dangling pointers.

unique_ptr:

Provides exclusive ownership of the managed object.

#include <memory>

std::unique_ptr<int> ptr(new int);
*ptr = 20;
std::cout << "Value: " << *ptr << std::endl; // Output: Value: 20

shared_ptr:

Allows multiple pointers to share ownership of the managed object.

#include <memory>

std::shared_ptr<int> ptr1 = std::make_shared<int>(30);
std::shared_ptr<int> ptr2 = ptr1; // Both ptr1 and ptr2 point to the same memory

std::cout << "Value: " << *ptr1 << std::endl; // Output: Value: 30
std::cout << "Value: " << *ptr2 << std::endl; // Output: Value: 30

weak_ptr:

Provides a non-owning reference to an object managed by a shared_ptr.

#include <memory>

std::shared_ptr<int> sharedPtr = std::make_shared<int>(40);
std::weak_ptr<int> weakPtr = sharedPtr;

if (auto observedPtr = weakPtr.lock()) {
    std::cout << "Value: " << *observedPtr << std::endl; // Output: Value: 40
} else {
    std::cout << "Object is no longer available." << std::endl;
}

7.3. Avoiding Memory Leaks

Memory leaks occur when dynamically allocated memory is not properly deallocated. To avoid memory leaks, always ensure that you delete memory allocated with new when it is no longer needed. Smart pointers can also help automate memory management and reduce the risk of leaks.

Best Practices for Memory Management:

• Always delete memory allocated with new.
• Use smart pointers to automate memory management.
• Avoid allocating large blocks of memory unnecessarily.
• Use memory analysis tools to detect and fix memory leaks.

8. Working with the Standard Template Library (STL)

The Standard Template Library (STL) is a set of template classes and functions that provide common programming data structures and algorithms. It is a powerful tool for writing efficient and reusable C++ code.

8.1. Containers: vector, list, map, etc.

Containers are classes that store collections of objects.

vector:

A dynamic array that can grow or shrink as needed.

#include <vector>
#include <iostream>

int main() {
    std::vector<int> numbers;
    numbers.push_back(10);
    numbers.push_back(20);
    numbers.push_back(30);

    for (int i = 0; i < numbers.size(); i++) {
        std::cout << "numbers[" << i << "]: " << numbers[i] << std::endl;
    }

    return 0;
}

list:

A doubly-linked list that allows for efficient insertion and deletion of elements.

#include <list>
#include <iostream>

int main() {
    std::list<int> numbers;
    numbers.push_back(10);
    numbers.push_back(20);
    numbers.push_back(30);

    for (int num : numbers) {
        std::cout << "Number: " << num << std::endl;
    }

    return 0;
}

map:

A sorted associative container that stores key-value pairs.

#include <map>
#include <iostream>

int main() {
    std::map<string, int> ages;
    ages["Alice"] = 30;
    ages["Bob"] = 25;
    ages["Charlie"] = 35;

    for (auto const& [name, age] : ages) {
        std::cout << name << ": " << age << std::endl;
    }

    return 0;
}

8.2. Algorithms: sort, find, transform, etc.

Algorithms are functions that perform common operations on containers, such as sorting, searching, and transforming elements.

sort:

Sorts the elements in a container.

#include <vector>
#include <algorithm>
#include <iostream>

int main() {
    std::vector<int> numbers = {30, 10, 20};
    std::sort(numbers.begin(), numbers.end());

    for (int num : numbers) {
        std::cout << "Number: " << num << std::endl;
    }

    return 0;
}

find:

Finds the first occurrence of a value in a container.

#include <vector>
#include <algorithm>
#include <iostream>

int main() {
    std::vector<int> numbers = {10, 20, 30};
    auto it = std::find(numbers.begin(), numbers.end(), 20);

    if (it != numbers.end()) {
        std::cout << "Value found: " << *it << std::endl;
    } else {
        std::cout << "Value not found." << std::endl;
    }

    return 0;
}

transform:

Applies a function to each element in a container and stores the results in another container.

#include <vector>
#include <algorithm>
#include <iostream>

int main() {
    std::vector<int> numbers = {1, 2, 3};
    std::vector<int> squares(numbers.size());

    std::transform(numbers.begin(), numbers.end(), squares.begin(), [](int n){ return n * n; });

    for (int square : squares) {
        std::cout << "Square: " << square << std::endl;
    }

    return 0;
}

8.3. Iterators

Iterators are objects that allow you to traverse the elements in a container.

Using Iterators:

#include <vector>
#include <iostream>

int main() {
    std::vector<int> numbers = {10, 20, 30};

    for (auto it = numbers.begin(); it != numbers.end(); ++it) {
        std::cout << "Number: " << *it << std::endl;
    }

    return 0;
}

9. Advanced C++ Concepts

Once you have a solid understanding of the basics, you can move on to more advanced concepts.

9.1. Templates

Templates allow you to write generic code that can work with different data types.

Function Template:

template <typename T>
T max(T a, T b) {
    return (a > b) ? a : b;
}

int main() {
    int x = 10, y = 20;
    double a = 5.5, b = 3.3;

    std::cout << "Max of " << x << " and " << y << " is " << max(x, y) << std::endl;
    std::cout << "Max of " << a << " and " << b << " is " << max(a, b) << std::endl;

    return 0;
}

Class Template:

template <typename T>
class MyVector {
private:
    T* data;
    int size;

public:
    MyVector(int size) {
        this->size = size;
        data = new T[size];
    }

    ~MyVector() {
        delete[] data;
    }

    T& operator[](int index) {
        return data[index];
    }
};

int main() {
    MyVector<int> intVector(5);
    intVector[0] = 10;
    std::cout << "Value: " << intVector[0] << std::endl;

    return 0;
}

9.2. Exception Handling

Exception handling allows you to handle errors and unexpected situations in a controlled manner.

try, catch, and throw:

#include <iostream>
#include <stdexcept>

int divide(int a, int b) {
    if (b == 0) {
        throw std::runtime_error("Division by zero!");
    }
    return a / b;
}

int main() {
    try {
        int result = divide(10, 0);
        std::cout << "Result: " << result << std::endl;
    } catch (const std::runtime_error& error) {
        std::cerr << "Error: " << error.what() << std::endl;
    }

    return 0;
}

9.3. Multithreading

Multithreading allows you to execute multiple threads concurrently, improving the performance of your programs.

Creating and Managing Threads:

#include <iostream>
#include <thread>

void task(int id) {
    std::cout << "Thread " << id << " is running." << std::endl;
}

int main() {
    std::thread thread1(task, 1);
    std::thread thread2(task, 2);

    thread1.join();
    thread2.join();

    std::cout << "Main thread finished." << std::endl;

    return 0;
}

10. Best Practices for Writing C++ Code

Writing clean, maintainable, and efficient C++ code requires adherence to best practices.

10.1. Code Style and Formatting

Consistent code style and formatting improve readability and maintainability.

Key Style Guidelines:

• Use meaningful variable and function names.
• Indent code consistently.
• Add comments to explain complex logic.
• Follow a consistent naming convention.

10.2. Error Handling and Debugging

Effective error handling and debugging are essential for writing reliable C++ code.

Tips for Error Handling:

• Use exception handling to handle errors gracefully.
• Log errors for debugging purposes.
• Validate input to prevent errors.

Debugging Techniques:

• Use a debugger to step through code and inspect variables.
• Add print statements to trace the execution flow.
• Use assertions to check for unexpected conditions.

10.3. Optimization Techniques

Optimizing your C++ code can improve its performance and efficiency.

Optimization Tips:

• Use efficient data structures and algorithms.
• Minimize memory allocations.
• Avoid unnecessary copies.
• Use inline functions for small, frequently called functions.
• Profile your code to identify performance bottlenecks.

11. Resources for Further Learning

To further enhance your C++ skills, consider exploring these additional resources.

11.1. Online Courses and Tutorials

• Coursera: Offers a variety of C++ courses from top universities.
• Udemy: Provides C++ tutorials for all skill levels.
• edX: Offers C++ courses from leading institutions.
• Codecademy: Interactive C++ courses for beginners.

11.2. Books and Documentation

• “The C++ Programming Language” by Bjarne Stroustrup: The definitive guide to C++ by its creator.
• “Effective C++” by Scott Meyers: A collection of best practices for writing high-quality C++ code.
• “C++ Primer” by Lippman, Lajoie, and Moo: A comprehensive introduction to C++.
• cppreference.com: An excellent online reference for C++ syntax and libraries.

11.3. Communities and Forums

• Stack Overflow: A popular Q&A site for programming questions.
• Reddit (r/cpp): A community for C++ developers.
• C++ User Groups: Local communities for C++ enthusiasts.

12. Finding a Complete Guide to Programming in C++ PDF Download

While this article provides a comprehensive overview of C++, having a downloadable PDF guide can be extremely helpful for offline access and focused study.

12.1. Where to Look for a C++ Programming PDF

• Official Documentation: Check the official C++ documentation websites for downloadable PDFs.
• Educational Websites: Many educational platforms offer downloadable C++ guides.
• Online Libraries: Online libraries like Internet Archive may have digitized versions of C++ books.
• conduct.edu.vn: Visit our website for curated resources and potential downloadable guides.

12.2. Tips for Evaluating the Quality of a C++ Programming PDF

• Author Credibility: Look for guides written by reputable authors or institutions.
• Comprehensive Coverage: Ensure the guide covers a wide range of topics, from basic to advanced.
• Up-to-Date Information: Verify that the guide is current with the latest C++ standards.
• Clear Explanations: The guide should provide clear and concise explanations of concepts.
• Practical Examples: Look for guides with plenty of practical examples and exercises.

13. Real-World Applications of C++

C++ is used in a wide range of industries and applications.

13.1. Game Development

C++ is a primary language for developing high-performance games and game engines.

Popular Game Engines Written in C++:

• Unreal Engine: A widely used game engine for creating AAA games.
• Unity: A cross-platform game engine with C++ scripting capabilities.

13.2. System Programming

C++ is used for developing operating systems, device drivers, and other system-level software.

Examples of System Software Written in C++:

• Operating Systems: Parts of Windows, macOS, and Linux are written in C++.
• Device Drivers: Drivers for hardware devices.

13.3. High-Performance Computing

C++ is used in scientific simulations, financial modeling, and other computationally intensive applications.

Examples of HPC Applications:

• Scientific Simulations: Weather forecasting, molecular dynamics.
• Financial Modeling: Algorithmic trading, risk management.

13.4. Embedded Systems

C++ is used for programming embedded systems, such as those found in automobiles, appliances, and industrial equipment.

Examples of Embedded Systems Applications:

• Automotive Systems: Engine control units, infotainment systems.
• Industrial Equipment: Programmable logic controllers (PLCs).

14. Staying Current with C++ Standards

C++ is an evolving language, with new standards released every few years.

14.1. Following the Latest C++ Standards (C++11, C++14, C++17, C++20)

Staying current with the latest standards ensures that you are using the most modern and efficient features of the language.

Key Features Introduced in Recent Standards:

• C++11: Smart pointers, lambda expressions, range-based for loops.
• C++14: Generic lambda expressions, return type deduction for functions.
• C++17: Structured bindings, inline variables.
• C++20: Concepts, ranges, modules.

14.2. Using Modern C++ Features

Modern C++ features can improve the readability, maintainability, and performance of your code.

Examples of Modern C++ Features:

• Smart Pointers: Automate memory management and reduce the risk of memory leaks.
• Lambda Expressions: Write concise and efficient code for small functions.
• Range-Based for Loops: Simplify iteration over containers.
• Auto Type Deduction: Reduce verbosity and improve code clarity.

15. Common Mistakes to Avoid in C++

Avoiding common mistakes can save you time and effort when writing C++ code.

15.1. Memory Leaks

Failing to deallocate memory allocated with new results in memory leaks.

Solution:

• Always delete memory allocated with new.
• Use smart pointers to automate memory management.

15.2. Dangling Pointers

Using a pointer after the memory it points to has been deallocated results in a dangling pointer.

Solution: